Abundance of The Chemical Elements - Abundance of Elements in The Universe

Abundance of Elements in The Universe

Ten most common elements in the Milky Way Galaxy estimated spectroscopically

Z	Element	Mass fraction in parts per million
1	Hydrogen	739,000	71 × mass of Oxygen (red bar)
2	Helium	240,000	23 × mass of Oxygen (red bar)
8	Oxygen	10,400	10400
6	Carbon	4,600	4600
10	Neon	1,340	1340
26	Iron	1,090	1090
7	Nitrogen	960	960
14	Silicon	650	650
12	Magnesium	580	580
16	Sulfur	440	440

See also: Stellar population, Cosmochemistry, and Astrochemistry

The elements – that is, ordinary (baryonic) matter made out of protons and neutrons (as well as electrons) – are only a small part of the content of the Universe. Cosmological observations suggest that only 4.6% of the universe comprises the visible baryonic matter which constitutes stars, planets and living beings. The rest is made up of dark energy (72%) and dark matter (23%). The latter are forms of matter and energy believed to exist on the basis of theory and observational deductions, but their details are still the subject of research. They have not yet been directly observed and are not well understood.

Most standard (baryonic) matter is found in stars and interstellar clouds, in the form of atoms or ions (plasma), although other unusual kinds of matter can be found in astrophysical settings, such as the high densities inside white dwarfs and neutron stars.

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the known Universe; helium is second. However, after this, the rank of abundance does not continue to correspond to the atomic number; oxygen has abundance rank 3, but atomic number 8. All others are substantially less common.

The abundance of the lightest elements is well predicted by the standard cosmological model, since they were mostly produced shortly (i.e., within a few hundred seconds) after the Big Bang, in a process known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Heavier elements were mostly produced much later, inside stars.

Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up roughly 74% and 24% of all baryonic matter in the universe respectively. Despite comprising only a very small fraction of the universe, the remaining "heavy elements" can greatly influence astronomical phenomena. Only about 2% (by mass) of the Milky Way galaxy's disk is composed of heavy elements.

These other elements are generated by stellar processes. In astronomy, a "metal" is any element other than hydrogen, helium or lithium. This distinction is significant because hydrogen and helium (together with trace amounts of lithium) are the only elements that occur naturally without the nuclear fusion activity of stars. Thus, the metallicity of a galaxy or other object is an indication of past stellar activity.

The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in our solar system. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements.

The abundance of elements in the Solar System (see graph above) is in keeping with their origin from the Big Bang and nucleosynthesis in a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, while the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements have been produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly-larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovae. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with increasing atomic number.

Most abundant isotopes in the Solar System

Isotope	A	Mass fraction in parts per million	Atom fraction in parts per million
Hydrogen-1	1	705,700	909,964
Helium-4	4	275,200	88,714
Oxygen-16	16	5,920	477
Carbon-12	12	3,032	326
Nitrogen-14	14	1,105	102
Neon-20	20	1,548	100
Other elements:		3,879	149
Silicon-28	28	653	30
Magnesium-24	24	513	28
Iron-56	56	1,169	27
Sulfur-32	32	396	16
Helium-3	3	35	15
Hydrogen-2	2	23	15
Neon-22	22	208	12
Magnesium-26	26	79	4
Carbon-13	13	37	4
Magnesium-25	25	69	4
Aluminum-27	27	58	3
Argon-36	36	77	3
Calcium-40	40	60	2
Sodium-23	23	33	2
Iron-54	54	72	2
Silicon-29	29	34	2
Nickel-58	58	49	1
Silicon-30	30	23	1
Iron-57	57	28	1