Sound Changes
The following table shows a possible sequence of changes for some basic vocabulary items, leading from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Modern English. The notation >! indicates an unexpected change (the simple notation ">" indicates an expected change). The notation "---" means no change at the given stage for the given item. Only sound changes that had an effect on one or more of the vocabulary items are shown.
| one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | mother | heart | hear | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Indo-European | óinos | dúoH | trih₂ (fem.) | kʷetwó:res | pénkʷe | seḱs | septḿ | méh₂te:r | ḱe:rd | h₂ḱousyónom |
| PIE pronunciation | óinos | dúoh? | triχ | kʷetwó:res | pénkʷe | seks | septḿ | máχte:r | ke:rd | χkousjónom |
| Laryngeal changes | --- | dúo: | tría | --- | --- | --- | --- | má:te:r | --- | kousjónom |
| Osthoff's Law | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | kerd | --- |
| Sievers' Law | --- | --- | tríja | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | kousijónom |
| Pre-Germanic unexpected changes | --- | >! dwoi | >! tríja: | >! petwó:res | >! pémpe | --- | >! sepḿt | --- | >! kérd-o:n | --- |
| Vocalic resonant | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sepúmt | --- | --- | --- |
| Final -m > -n | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sepúnt | --- | --- | kousijónon |
| Grimm's Law | --- | twoi | θríja: | feθwó:res | fémfe | sehs | sefúnt | má:θe:r | hérto:n | housijónon |
| Verner's Law | oinoz | --- | θrija: | feðwo:rez | femfe | --- | sevunt | ma:θe:r | herto:n | houzijonon |
| a ō > o ā | ainaz | twai | θrijo: | --- | --- | --- | --- | mo:θe:r | --- | hauzijanan |
| Nasal raising | --- | --- | --- | --- | fimfe | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Proto-Germanic final reduction | --- | --- | --- | feðwo:rz | fimf | --- | sevun | --- | hertõ: | hauzijanã |
| Proto-Germanic form | ainaz | twai | θrijo: | feðwo:rz | fimf | sehs | sevun | mo:θe:r | hertõ: | hauzijanã |
| West Germanic (WG) final reduction | ainz | --- | θriu | feðwurz | --- | --- | --- | mo:θer | hertã > herta | hauzijan |
| WG final -z loss | ain | --- | --- | feðwur | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| WG z > r | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | haurijan |
| WG ðw > ww | --- | --- | --- | fewwur | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Ingvaeonic nasal loss | --- | --- | --- | --- | fi:f | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| ai > ā | a:n | twa: | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Anglo-Frisian brightening | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | hertæ | hæurijan |
| Old English (OE) i-mutation | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | heyrijan |
| OE loss of i-mutation trigger | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | heyran |
| OE intervocalic voicing | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | mo:ðer | --- | --- |
| OE breaking | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | hĕŭrtæ | --- |
| OE diphthong height harmony | --- | --- | --- | feowur | --- | --- | --- | --- | hĕŏrtæ | he:ran |
| OE back mutation | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sĕŏvun | --- | --- | --- |
| OE final reduction | --- | --- | --- | feowor | --- | --- | sĕŏvon | >! mo:ðor | hĕŏrte | --- |
| OE ehs eht > ihs iht | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | sihs | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| OE hs > ks | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | siks | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Late OE iu > eo | --- | --- | θreo | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Late Old English spelling | ān | twā | þrēo | fēowor | fīf | six | seofon | mōþor | heorte | hēran |
| Middle English (ME) smoothing | --- | --- | θrø: | fø:wor | --- | --- | søvon | --- | hørte | --- |
| ME final reduction | --- | --- | --- | fø:wǝr | --- | --- | søvǝn | mo:ðǝr | hørtǝ | he:rǝn |
| ME a: æ: > ɔ: ɛ: | ɔ:n | twɔ: | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| ME unexpected (?) vowel changes | --- | >! two: | --- | --- | >! fi:v-ǝ | --- | --- | --- | --- | >! hɛ:rǝn |
| ME diphthong changes | --- | --- | --- | >! fowǝr | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Late ME unrounding | --- | --- | θre: | --- | --- | --- | sevǝn | --- | hertǝ | --- |
| Late Middle English spelling | oon | two | three | fower | five | six | seven | mother | herte | heere(n) |
| Late ME final reduction | --- | --- | --- | >! fowr | fi:v | --- | --- | --- | hert | hɛ:r |
| Late ME Great Vowel Shift | o:n >! wʊn | twu: > tu: | θri: | --- | fǝiv | --- | --- | mu:ðǝr | --- | he:r |
| Early Modern English (ENE) smoothing | --- | --- | --- | fo:r | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| ENE shortening | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | mʊðǝr | --- | --- |
| ENE /ʊ/ > /ʌ/ | wʌn | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | mʌðǝr | --- | --- |
| ENE /er/ > /ar/ | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | hart | --- |
| Later vowel shifts | --- | --- | --- | fɔ:r | faiv | sɪks | --- | --- | hɑrt | hi:r |
| Loss of -r (British only) | --- | --- | --- | fɔ: | --- | --- | --- | mʌðǝ | hɑ:t | hiǝ |
| Modern pronunciation | wʌn | tu: | θri: | fɔ:(r) | faiv | sɪks | sevǝn | mʌðǝ(r) | hɑrt/hɑ:t | hi:r/hiǝ |
| one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | mother | heart | hear |
NOTE: Some of the changes listed above as "unexpected" are more predictable than others. For example:
- tríja "three" > tríja: and ke:rd "heart" > kérd-o:n are morphological changes that move a word from a rare declension to a more common one, and hence are not so surprising.
- On the other extreme, the Early Modern English change of o:n "one" >! wʊn is almost completely mysterious. Note that the related words alone (< all + one) and only (< one + -ly) did not change.
Read more about this topic: Old English
Famous quotes containing the word sound:
“How good bad music and bad reasons sound when we are marching into battle against an enemy.”
—Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)
“Homer and Shakespeare and Milton and Marvell and Wordsworth are but the rustling of leaves and crackling of twigs in the forest, and there is not yet the sound of any bird. The Muse has never lifted up her voice to sing.”
—Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862)