Gender Roles in Greco-Roman Witchcraft - Magic in Homeric Times

Magic in Homeric Times

In Greek literature, the earliest magical operation that supports a definition of magic as a practice aimed at trying to locate and control the secret forces (the sympathies and antipathies that make up these forces) of the world (physis) is found in Book X of The Odyssey (a text stretching back to the early 8th century BCE). Book X describes the encounter of the central hero Odysseus with the Titan Circe, "She who is sister to the wizard Aeetes, both being children of the Sun…by the same mother, Perse the daughter of the Ocean," on the island of Aeaea. In the story Circe's magic consists in the use of a wand against Odysseus and his men while Odysseus's magic consists of the use of a secret herb called moly (revealed to him by the god Hermes, "god of the golden wand") to defend himself from her attack. In the story three requisites crucial to the idiom of "magic" in later literature are found:

1. The use of a mysterious tool endowed with special powers (the wand).
2. The use of a rare magical herb.
3. A divine figure that reveals the secret of the magical act (Hermes).

These are the three most common elements that characterize magic as a system in the later Hellenistic and greco-Roman periods of history.

Another important definitional element to magic is also found in the story. Circe is presented as being in the form of a beautiful woman (a temptress) when Odysseus encounters her on an island. In this encounter Circe uses her wand to change Odysseus’ companions into swine. This may suggest that magic was associated (in this time) with practices that went against the natural order, or against wise and good forces (Circe is called a witch by a companion of Odysseus). In this mode it is worth noting that Circe is representative of a power (the Titans) that had been conquered by the younger Olympian gods such as Zeus, Poseidon and Hades. Furthermore she had been banished to the island of Aeaea after having murdered her husband. Interpretively she is dangerous: secretive, opposed to the gods, a semi-divine power left over from the older god culture of the Titans. However Odysseus has first to visit her before she becomes a threat and this suggests that she has a relative power in terms of distance, but a very dangerous one once within reach of her magic. This would fit with the idea of magic being a second class power: i.e. it does not compare to the powers of tradition and of the gods. Indeed, it appears that it has to work in secret to achieve its ends. Thus, although Circe changes Odysseus's companions into swine, she has no power over Odysseus himself because of his own imbued item - the herb - moly. This could be seen as magic being defeatable by other magic, but we can note that Odysseus's magic is more acceptable because a legitimate god (Hermes) confers the wisdom of its use to Odysseus.

However Hermes fails to protect Odysseus from Circe's physical charms; and because of this the hero does eventually succumb to the power of the magic user. Here we see an idea represented: that users of magic are not to be trusted because of the powers they are prepared to pursue and use, in this case the sexual powers associated with women (i.e. witches). This is further shown in that Circe can transform men into beasts; and is also able to predict the future. This ability is linked with another magical motif of the Odyssey epic: the necromantic scene in Book XI. Following Circe's instructions on how to journey to the underworld, Odysseus digs a trench, pours out as an offering to the dead a drink that consists of honey, milk, wine and water, and slaughters two black sheep in such a way that their blood runs into the ditch. This attracts the shades of the dead in flocks and by drinking the blood they regain, for a short time, the ability to communicate with the living (Odysseus) and pass on their knowledge of the future. Dread and danger is associated with Odysseus performing the act,

Panic drained the blood from my cheeks…while they prayed to the gods… But I sat myself on guard, bare sword in hand, and prevented any of the feckless ghosts from approaching the blood before I had speech with Teiresias .

The magical act appears to be an act of desperation (Odysseus needs to journey to the underworld), there is danger associated with the act, which the text suggests only the fortitude (the morality?) of the character and perhaps also the prayers to the gods by Odysseus’ men can overcome its peril. Circe lies at the heart of the risky endeavour being undertaken.