Thermodynamics
Duhem is also known for his work in thermodynamics, being in part responsible for the development of what is known as the Gibbs–Duhem relation and the Duhem–Margules equation. Duhem thought that from the first principles of thermodynamics physicists should be able to derive all the other fields of physics—e.g., chemistry, mechanics, and electromagnetism. Duhem, influenced by Macquorn Rankine's "Outlines of the Science of Energetics," carried out this project in Traité de l'énergétique (1911) but was unable to subject electromagnetism to thermodynamic first principles. With the physicist, philosopher and historian of science Ernst Mach, Duhem also shared a scepticism with regard to the existence of atoms.
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