Paper Marbling - History in Central Asia and The Islamic World

History in Central Asia and The Islamic World

In the 15th century the method of floating colors on the surface of mucilaginous sizing is thought to have emerged in Central Asia. It is believed to have appeared during the end of the Islamic Timurid Dynasty, whose final capital was in the city of Herat, located in Afghanistan today. Other sources suggest it emerged during the subsequent Shaybanid dynasty, in the cities of Samarqand or Bukhara, in what is now modern Uzbekistan. Whether or not this method was somehow related to earlier Chinese or Japanese methods mentioned above has never been concretely proven.

This Islamic method came to be known as kâghaz-e abrî (كاغذ ابرى), although often the simplified form of abrî (ابرى), is also found in several historic texts. This was translated by the late scholar Dr. Annemarie Schimmel to mean "clouded paper" in Persian. Certain Turkish writers have suggested that the word may be of Turkish origin related to the word abreh ابره meaning "colorful" or "variegated", though this specific term has never been concretely proven to have been used in relation to the art. It may have been the case that both Persian and Turkish meanings were simultaneously understood by artisans, many of which were conversant in both languages at that time, and even enjoyed as an expression of poetic nuance. Most historical Persian and Turkish texts known that refer to this kind of paper use the word abrî alone. Today in Iran it is often called abr-o-bâd (ابرو باد), meaning "cloud and wind".

The art developed in Safavid Persia and Ottoman Turkey, as well as Mughal and the Deccan Sultanates in India. Within these regions, various methods emerged in which colors were made to float on the surface of a bath of viscous liquid mucilage or size, made from various plants. These include katheera or kitre- gum tragacanth (Astragalus often used as a binder by apothecaries in making tablets), shambalîleh or methi- fenugreek seed (an ingredient in curry mixtures), and sahlab or salep (the roots of "Orchis mascula", which is commonly used to make a popular beverage). A method of manipulating colors evolved that employed various tools including rakes, combs, and other apparatus, utilized in a series of movements, resulted in incredibly elaborate, intricate, and mesmerizing designs. In India, the abri technique was eventually combined with 'aks, which are various methods of resist or stencils, to create unique and very rare form of miniature painting. These are commonly associated with the Deccan region today, and especially the city of Bijapur in particular, under Adil Shahi dynasty patronage in the 17th century. The topic of marbling in India is understudied and conclusive determinations have yet to be made, especially in light of discoveries made in the last 20 years.

In Turkey, the art is widely known as ebru today, and continues to be very popular. The usage of this term appears in the late 19th century. The earliest examples of Ottoman Ebru are thought to be a copy of the Hâlnâmah حالنامه by the poet Arifi, popularly known as the Guy-i Çevgan or "Ball and Polo-stick". The text of this manuscript was rendered in a delicate cut paper découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many marbled and decorative paper borders. One early master by the name of Shebek is mention posthumously in the earliest Ottoman text on the art known as the Tertib-i Risâle-i Ebrî (ترطیبِ رسالۀ ابری), which is dated based on internal evidence to after 1615. Several recipes in the text are accredited to this master. Another famous 18th century master by the name of Hatip Mehmed Effendi (d. 1773) is accredited with developing motif and perhaps early floral designs, although evidence from India appears to contradict some of these claims. Despite this, marbled motifs are commonly referred to as "Hatip" designs today in Turkey.

The current Turkish tradition of ebru dates to the mid 19th century, with a series of masters associated with a branch of the Naqshbandi Sufi order based at what is known as the Özbekler Tekkesi, located in Sultantepe, near Üsküdar. The founder of this line is accredited to Sadık Effendi (d. 1846). It is said that he learned the art in Bukhara and taught it to his sons Edhem and Salıh. Based upon this, many Turkish marblers have stated that the art was perpetuated by Sufis for centuries, although evidence for this claim is has never been concretely established. "Hezarfen" Edhem Effendi (d. 1904) is attributed with developing the art as a kind of cottage industry for the tekke, to supply Istanbul's burgeoning printing industry with the decorative paper. It is said that the papers were tied into bundles and sold by weight. Many of these papers were of the neftli design, made with turpentine, an equivalent to what is called stormont in English.

The premier student of Edhem Effendi was Necmeddin Okyay (1885–1976). He was the first to teach the art at the Fine Arts Academy in Istanbul. He is famous for the development of floral styles of marbling, in addition to yazılı ebru a method of writing traditional calligraphy using a gum-resist method in conjunction with ebru. Okyay's premier student was Mustafa Düzgünman (1920–1990), the teacher of many contemporary marblers in Turkey today. He is known for codifying the traditional repertoire of patterns, to which he only added a floral daisy design, in the manner of his teacher.