Mammomonogamus - Epidemiology

Epidemiology

Mammomonogamiasis is a very rare human infection yet a common veterinary parasite. Only 100 human cases of M. laryngeus have been reported thus far. Its reservoir hosts are largely in tropical regions, most commonly the domestic cattle, cats, orangutans, and other ruminants and ungulates. Therefore, humans are accidental hosts, where infections are most likely to due close exposure to bovine or feline species.

While the complete life cycle is still not fully known, transmission is thought to be oral-fecal, where infection comes from ingesting contaminated food or water containing embryonated eggs, hatched larvae, or intermediate hosts. Possible intermediate host candidates include earthworms, snails, and arthropods. Eggs are expelled in sputum or feces. Most often, travelers to tropical climate places become exposed to contaminated sources and are diagnosed upon return to their country. The best preventative measure is to ensure proper food preparation and water sanitation.

From the numerous case reports, endemic areas include Martinique, Brazil, Puerto Rico, Dominica, Santa Lucia, Trinidad, Guyana, Guadeloupe, India, tropic regions in Africa, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, China, Korea, and Thailand.

Due to the frequency of travelers contracting this disease, countries such as Australia, Canada, United States, UK, France have reported cases although these countries are not considered to be endemic for the parasite.