Intertidal Ecology - Species Interactions

Species Interactions

In addition to being shaped by aspects of climate, intertidal habitats—especially intertidal zonation patterns—are strongly influenced by species interactions, such as predation, competition, facilitation, and indirect interactions. Ultimately, these interactions feed into the food web structure, described above. Intertidal habitats have been a model system for many classic ecological studies, including those introduced below, because the resident communities are particularly amenable to experimentation.

One dogma of intertidal ecology—supported by such classic studies—is that species’ lower tide height limits are set by species interactions whereas their upper limits are set by climate variables. Classic studies by Robert Paine established that when sea star predators are removed, mussel beds extend to lower tide heights, smothering resident seaweeds. Thus, mussels’ lower limits are set by sea star predation. Conversely, in the presence of sea stars, mussels’ lower limits occur at a tide height at which sea stars are unable to tolerate climate conditions.

Competition, especially for space, is another dominant interaction structuring intertidal communities. Space competition is especially fierce in rocky intertidal habitats, where habitable space is limited compared to soft-sediment habitats in which three-dimensional space is available. As seen with the previous sea star example, mussels are competitively dominant when they are not kept in check by sea star predation. Joseph Connell's research on two types of high intertidal barnacles, Balanus balanoides, now Semibalanus balanoides, and a Chthamalus stellatus, showed that zonation patterns could also be set by competition between closely related organisms. In this example, Balanus outcompetes Chthamalus at lower tide heights but is unable to survive at higher tide heights. Thus, Balanus conforms to the intertidal ecology dogma introduced above: its lower tide height limit is set by a predatory snail and its higher tide height limit is set by climate. Similarly, Chthamalus, which occurs in a refuge from competition (similar to the temperature refuges discussed above), has a lower tide height limit set by competition with Balanus and a higher tide height limit is set by climate.

Although intertidal ecology has traditionally focused on these negative interactions (predation and competition), there is emerging evidence that positive interactions are also important. Facilitation refers to one organism helping another without harming itself. For example, salt marsh plant species of Juncus and Iva are unable to tolerate the high soil salinities when evaporation rates are high, thus they depend on neighboring plants to shade the sediment, slow evaporation, and help maintain tolerable salinity levels. In similar examples, many intertidal organisms provide physical structures that are used as refuges by other organisms. Mussels, although they are tough competitors with certain species, are also good facilitators as mussel beds provide a three-dimensional habitat to species of snails, worms, and crustaceans.

All of the examples given so far are of direct interactions: Species A eat Species B or Species B eats Species C. Also important are indirect interactions where, using the previous example, Species A eats so much of Species B that predation on Species C decreases and Species C increases in number. Thus, Species A indirectly benefits Species C. Pathways of indirect interactions can include all other forms of species interactions. To follow the sea star-mussel relationship, sea stars have an indirect negative effect on the diverse community that lives in the mussel bed because, by preying on mussels and decreasing mussel bed structure, those species that are facilitated by mussels are left homeless. Additional important species interactions include mutualism, which is seen in symbioses between sea anemones and their internal symbiotic algae, and parasitism, which is prevalent but is only beginning to be appreciated for its effects on community structure.