Techniques Used For Horizontal Scanning
Three types of confocal microscopes are commercially available:
- Confocal laser scanning microscopes use multiple mirrors (typically 2 or 3 scanning linearly along the x and the y axis) to scan the laser across the sample and "descan" the image across a fixed pinhole and detector.
- Spinning-disk (Nipkow disk) confocal microscopes use a series of moving pinholes on a disc to scan spot of light.
- Programmable Array Microscopes (PAM) use an electronically controlled spatial light modulator (SLM) that produces a set of moving pinholes. The SLM is a device containing an array of pixels with some property (opacity, reflectivity or optical rotation) of the individual pixels that can be adjusted electronically. The SLM contains microelectromechanical mirrors or liquid crystal components. The image is usually acquired by a CCD camera.
Each of these classes of confocal microscope have particular advantages and disadvantages. Most systems are either optimized for either recording speed (i.e. video capture) or high spatial resolution. Confocal laser scanning microscopes can have a programmable sampling density and very high resolutions while Nipkow and PAM use a fixed sampling density defined by the camera's resolution. Imaging frame rates are typically slower for single point laser scanning systems than spinning-disk or PAM systems. Commercial spinning-disk confocal microscopes achieve frame rates of over 50 per second – a desirable feature for dynamic observations such as live cell imaging. In practice, Nipkow and PAM allow multiple pinholes scanning the same are in parallel as long as the pinholes are sufficiently far apart. Cutting-edge development of confocal laser scanning microscopy now allows better than standard video rate (60 frames/second) imaging by using multiple microelectromechanical systems-based scanning mirrors.
Confocal X-ray fluorescence imaging is a newer technique that allows control over depth, in addition to horizontal and vertical aiming, for example, when analyzing buried layers in a painting.
Read more about this topic: Confocal Microscopy
Famous quotes containing the words techniques and/or horizontal:
“The techniques of opening conversation are universal. I knew long ago and rediscovered that the best way to attract attention, help, and conversation is to be lost. A man who seeing his mother starving to death on a path kicks her in the stomach to clear the way, will cheerfully devote several hours of his time giving wrong directions to a total stranger who claims to be lost.”
—John Steinbeck (1902–1968)
“In bourgeois society, the French and the industrial revolution transformed the authorization of political space. The political revolution put an end to the formalized hierarchy of the ancien regimé.... Concurrently, the industrial revolution subverted the social hierarchy upon which the old political space was based. It transformed the experience of society from one of vertical hierarchy to one of horizontal class stratification.”
—Donald M. Lowe, U.S. historian, educator. History of Bourgeois Perception, ch. 4, University of Chicago Press (1982)