Inner Product
To define angles in an abstract real inner product space, we replace the Euclidean dot product ( ยท ) by the inner product, i.e.
In a complex inner product space, the expression for the cosine above may give non-real values, so it is replaced with
or, more commonly, using the absolute value, with
The latter definition ignores the direction of the vectors and thus describes the angle between one-dimensional subspaces and spanned by the vectors and correspondingly.
Read more about this topic: Angle
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