Vermilion - History

History

Before the invention of writing, cinnabar pigments were used by humans. This is evidenced across the Old World, east (China, India (as Sindoor)) to west (Spain). As minium it was ancient Rome's most valued pigment. Grateful Romans led victorious generals in procession to Capitolinus Temple, the victors' faces covered with minium, honoring the vermilion visage of Jupiter upon Capitoline Hill. Pliny the Elder records that it became so expensive that the price became fixed by decree- 70 sesterces per libum— ten times more costly than red ochre.

From ancient times vermilion was regarded as the color of life (i.e., blood). Cinnabar provided the ubiquitous "China red", coloring Chinese life from the palatial red lacquers to the printing-pastes for personal name chops, and a unique red calligraphic ink reserved for Emperors. Chinese Taoists associated vermilion with eternity.

By the 8th century CE., the Chinese had recorded a procedure incorporating mercury and sulfur into a synthesized vermilion. By the 12th century the synthetic was introduced into Europe but in the west vermilion remained expensive- comparable to gilding in illuminated manuscript production- until the 14th century when the consistency of the synthetic set a popular standard. Cennino Cennini mentions that vermilion is

made by alchemy in a retort. I am leaving out the system for this, because it would be too tedious to set forth in my discussion all the methods and receipts. Because, if you want to take the trouble, you will find plenty of receipts for it, and especially by asking of the friars. But I advise you rather to get some of that which you find at the druggists' for your money, so as not to lose time in the many variations of procedure. And I will teach you how to buy it, and to recognize the good vermilion. Always buy vermilion unbroken, and not pounded or ground. The reason? Because it is generally adulterated, either with red lead or with pounded brick.

From the 17th century is recorded a modification of Chinese manufacture known as the 'Dutch' method. Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with a strong alkali, washed and finally ground under water to yield the commercial powder form of pigment.

Chinese vermilion was considered a superior hue to the European pigment. In 1835 "Chinese vermilion" was described as a cinnabar so pure that it only had to be ground into powder to become a perfect vermilion. Historically European vermilion included adulterants including brick, orpiment, iron oxide, Persian red, iodine scarlet-- and minium (red lead), an inexpensive & bright but fugitive (cf Pigment#impermanence) lead-oxide pigment.