Mongolian Literature - Imperial Era (1204-1368)

Imperial Era (1204-1368)

This period starts with the adoption in 1204 of the Uyghur-based Mongolian script as the official script of Genghis Khan's emerging Mongol Empire. The Mongol works that survive from this period reflect the prosperity and diversity of the global empire linked together by an efficient communications system. Yet they represent only a fraction of what would have existed then, since the majority of the works from this period has either not been found or has been destroyed amid the convulsions following the fall of the empire. Examples of lost works include the "Altan Debter", "Ikh Tovchoo" and "Great Yassa".

Significant works and writings in Mongol language from this period include: The Secret History of the Mongols (1240), Stele of Yesunkhei (1225), Text of Güyük Khan's Seal marked on a letter to the Pope (1241), Decree of Ögedei Khan (1240), Stele of Möngke Khan (1258), Parchment writings of the Golden Horde (1240s), Letter of Arghun to Philip the Fair (1289), Letter of Oljaitu to the King of France (1305), Letter of Arghun to Pope Nicholas IV (1290), Praise of Mahakala (1305), Commentary on the Bodhicaryavatara (1312), Banzragch sutra (early 14th century), Subashid sutra (1290s), Poem of Muhammad al-Samarqandi (1290s), Alexander Romance (13th-early 14th century), New Testament and Psalms translated by Giovanni da Montecorvino (1310s now lost), Altangerel sutra (1330s), Buddhist dedicatory inscription at Tsavchaal Boomt (1345), Book on sacrifice to the Big Dipper (1330s), Achlalt Nom or Xiao Jing (1307), Edicts of the Yuan Emperors from Kublai Khan to Toghontemur (1279-1368), Stone inscriptions at Karakorum (early 14th century), Writings unearthed at Turfan (early 14th century) and Square script inscriptions (1279-1368).

The legal writings of Mongolia in the form of edicts, decrees and laws are generally written in a special type of formulaic language. They might be termed legal literature.

The Secret History of the Mongols, originally written in the Mongol script, is considered the foundational classic of Mongol literature. In addition to its prose sections, the Secret History contains many sections of poetry. "The Wisdom of Genghis", "The Defeat of the 300 Taijuud by Genghis Khan" and "The Wise Debate of the Orphan Boy with the Nine Generals of Genghis" are considered works of the 14th century that were later copied into historical chronicles of the 17th century.

The Parchment writings of the Golden Horde contain poems expressing the longings of a mother and her far-away son (a soldier) for each other. It is a unique remnant of literature of the common people.

Translation work was most productive during the Yuan dynasty. Choiji Odser produced many excellent translations and commentaries in Mongol of various major Buddhist sutras including the Bodhicaryavatar, the Banzragch sutra and the Twelve Deeds of the Buddha. He also composed poetry like the Praise of Mahakala as well as the work on Mongol grammar called Zurkhen tolit. Other prominent lamas of the Yuan dynasty also translated works like the Subashid and the Altangerel sutra (translated by Sharavsenge). The Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao Jing) was translated as well as the New Testament and Psalms.

The short four-line Poem of Muhammad al-Samarqandi about wisdom ("Bilig nigen dalai buyu, Gokhar tendeche gharayu, Bilig-un yoson-i, Bilig-tu kumun medeyu") and the Mongol fragments of the Alexander Romance are reflective of Mongol contact with the Muslim West. In the mid-13th century a Persian scholar called Iftikhar-eddin Muhammed translated the stories of Kalila and Dimna (of the Panchatantra) from Persian into Mongol.