Legal Citation Signals - List of Common Citation Signals

List of Common Citation Signals

Indicating support:

• is appropriate where the cited authority (i) directly states the proposition, (ii) identifies the source of a quotation, or (iii) identifies an authority referred to in the text.
• E.g., means there is more legal authority supporting the same proposition as the original cited authority, but whose inclusion is repetitive, unhelpful, or unnecessary.
• Accord usually is used to signify that some persuasive authority also supports the proposition of the quoted authority.
• See means authority supports the proposition with which the citation is associated either implicitly or in the form of dicta.
• See also signals support for a given proposition, but not as clearly as see.
• Cf. is used when the cited authority supports a proposition different from the main proposition but sufficiently analogous to lend support. The citation's relevance will usually be clear to the reader only if it is explained in a parenthetical.
• See generally means that a source provides useful background information. Usually used in the citation of secondary sources.

Indicating contradiction:

• But see means that the original citation supports the proposition and that the following citation supports something else. There does not need to be a direct contradiction.
• But cf. the following citation supports a contrary position by way of analogy.
• Contra means that the following citation is in direct contradiction with the original source.

Suggesting a useful comparison:

• Compare… with is a literal comparison between two or more sources. Like Cf., this signal is usually accompanied by parenthetical signals to clarify any contradiction.