First Sino-Japanese War
Zhang Zhidong became involved in the First Sino-Japanese War, although not on the frontlines. He initially advocated foreign aid from European forces near Tianjin in fighting Japan. In October 1894, he telegraphed Li Hongzhang, the Viceroy of Zhili, proposing the purchase of naval equipment, and loans from foreign banks. He further advocated this, and in addition the purchase of arms, alliance with European powers, and the "clear division of rewards and punishments" for troops, once the Japanese crossed the Yalu River into China in late October, threatening the Manchurian provinces. In early 1895, the Japanese had begun an assault on Shandong, and Zhang telegraphed Li Bingheng, the Governor, in an emergency that suggested fast civil recruitments, the building of strong forts, and the use of land mines, to prevent further Japanese advance. He had also sent arms and munitions to aid the campaign.
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