History of Mongolia - Qing Period - Qing Conquests of Mongolia

Qing Conquests of Mongolia

By the end of the 17th century, the power of the all-Mongolian Khaan had greatly weakened and the decentralized Mongols had to face the rising new Jurchen statehood on the east. Nurhaci Bagatur (Тэнгэрийн сүлдэт) who reunified the Jurchen tribes sent a letter to Ligdan Khaan seeking alliance in fighting against the Ming Dynasty. Ligdan denied the proposal mentioning that Nurhaci rules only 3 tumens of the Jurchens while Ligdan himself is a Genghisid ruling the 40 tumens of the Mongols, and that Nurhaci should better refrain from disturbing the Chinese cities-tributaries of him-of Ligdan Khaan. In response, Nurhaci held it necessary to remind him that the 40 tumens are long gone and there are perhaps some 6 tumens of which Chaharia only recognises Ligdan's power as Khaan. Later Nurhaci managed to ally with the vassals of Ligdan Khaan, the taijis of Southern Khalkha, Horchin, Horlos, etc., who pledged to support Nurhaci in his wars against the Ming Dynasty. However their first allied actions were against their own suzerain Ligdan Khaan, defeating him in 1622.

Ligdan Khaan occupied Tumet and Ordos in 1623 to forestall their absorption by the Manchu and advanced into the Manchurian lands in 1631. Nevertheless, Manchu ruler Hong Taiji (Дээд эрдэмт), successor of Nurhaci, allied with the Inner Mongolian taijis defeated him again in 1634 and sacked Hohhot. Ligdan retreated to Kukunor where he and his troops were swept by an epidemic. Abahai assumed the title of Khaan of Mongolia in 1636 landmarking the conquest of Inner Mongolia. The Manchus, supported by the troops of the Inner Mongolian taijis, conquered Ming China in 1644 and founded the Qing Dynasty.

At the same time, Mongolia encountered Russian expansion on her north. The well-armed Russian Cossaks cruelly subdued the resistance of the Buryats and conquered the Baikal region in 1640-1650s. The uprisings of the Buryats were brutally crushed in 1658 and 1696. The Russians attempted to build ostrogs in Khövsgöl area, but they were quickly destroyed by the local population.

Erdeni Batur Hongtaiji of Zunghar Khanate convened a congress of Dzungaria and Khalkha in 1640 to ally their forces in struggle against the increasing foreign aggressions. The congress issued a Khalkha-Oirat Law called the "Great Code of the Forty and the Four" (Döchin Dörben Hoyar un Ike Tsagaza). The Congress was attended by 28 rulers from Dzungaria, Khalkha, Kukunor and Kalmykia. Tushiyetu Khan Gombodorji and Secen Khan Sholoi were engaged in a conflict with the Manchu Qing Dynasty siding with Tenggis Taiji of Sünid of Inner Mongolia who revolted against Qing rule in 1646.

Tushiyetu Khan's throne was succeeded by Chahundorji in 1665. Zasagtu Khan Norbo died in 1661 and rivalry started between his successors. This feud eventually involved Altyn Khan, Tushiyetu Khan and the Zunghar Khanate. The crisis continued for decades and evolved into a war between Khalkha and Dzungaria in 1688 leading to a conquest of Khalkha by Galdan Boshugtu Khaan of Zungar Khanate in the course of several battles in the Hangai mountains. The head of the Khalkha Buddhism Boghda Zanabazar, the Khalkha khans and nobles with thousands of their subjects moved in panic to Inner Mongolia, which had been integrated into the Qing Dynasty. The Khalkha leaders sought Manchu aid in their feud with Galdan Boshugtu Khaan while Kangxi (Энх-Амгалан) cunningly demanded them to become his vassals as a condition for the support. Galdan defeated the joint Manchu, Khalkha and Inner Mongolian troops on the river Ulahui in 1690 and demanded Kangxi to cede to him Önder Gegeen Zanagazar and Tushiyetu Khan Chihundorji. The Qing Emperor called him to Ulaan Budun near Beijing for a "treaty". A joint Manchu, Khalkha and Inner Mongolian army gave ambushed deceived Galdan at Ulaan Budun who then retreated back to Khalkha.

Kangxi organised a congress of the rulers of Khalkha and Inner Mongolia in Dolnuur in 1691 at which the Khalkha feudals formally declared allegiance to the Qing Emperor. However, Khalkha de facto remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan. Kangxi invaded Khalkha in 1696 and the Oirats were defeated by the outnumbering enemy in a battle at Zuun Mod at the river Terelj. Galdan Boshugtu Khaan died in 1697 in the region of Kobdo. The Zunghar throne was seized by Galdan's brother Tseveenravdan in 1689 while the latter was engaged in the war in Khalkha.

Tseveenravdan Khaan stopped the Kazakh khans that began expanding to the east, and also sent his general Ihe Tserendondov to conquer Tibet in 1716. His force was driven out by Qing troops in 1720, who then occupied Tibet. However, several attempts of the Qing Dynasty to subjugate the Zunghar Khanate failed in the early 18th century. In 1723, the Qing troops subdued the uprising of Luvsandanzan taiji in Kukunor. Tseveenravdan Khaan was succeeded by his son Galdantseren in 1727. Galdantseren Khaan took a series of actions for development of crop production, gardening, and cannon manufacture in Dzungaria. He successfully repelled the aggression of the Qing Dynasty in 1729-31. Moreover, his general Baga Tserendondov advanced into Khalkha and reached the river Kerulen in 1732, but had to retreat after battles with the Khalkha and Qing troops. Galdantseren Khaan died in 1745 and a crisis was ignited among his heirs. After a series of bloodshed among them, Davaachi, supported by Amursanaa, became the new Zunghar Khaan in 1553. Such a feud signalled the Qing Dynasty to prepare for invasion of the Zunghar Khanate.

As soon as he became the new Zunghar Khaan, Davaachi deprived his friend Amursanaa of his wife and then defeated him in a battle in 1754. Amursanaa sought alliance of the Qing Dynasty. He hoped to defeat Davaachi and elevate himself as Khaan of Zunghar Khanate. The Qing administration mobilised horses and other livestock of the Khalkha population for the Zunghar invasion. A 200 thousand army consisting of Khalkha, Inner Mongolian, Manchu and Chinese troops invaded Dzungaria in 1755. The avantguard of the Qing army was led by Amursanaa, Chingünjav Wang and Rechindorji Wang from Khalkha.

While this horde intruded the basin of the river Ili, Amursanaa captured Davaachi and handed him to the Manchu. This event landmarked the fall of the Zunghar Khanate which inhibited the Qing expansion in Central Asia for over a century. The Qing Emperor Qianlong (Тэнгэрийн тэтгэсэн) demobilised the army and envisaged a congress of Dzungar and other Mongol aristocrats to celebrate the incorporation of Dzungaria into the Qing Dynasty. However, instead of such a joy, he was to face the same year an uprising of Amursanaa against Qing authority over Dzungaria.