Gunpowder Artillery in The Middle Ages - Advances in The Late Middle Ages

Advances in The Late Middle Ages

Similar cannon to those used at Crécy appeared also at the Siege of Calais in the same year, and by the 1380s the "ribaudekin" clearly became mounted on wheels. Wheeled gun carriages became more commonplace by the end of the 15th century, and were more often cast in bronze, rather than banding iron sections together. There were still the logistical problems both of transporting and of operating the cannon, and as many three dozen horses and oxen may have been required to move some of the great guns of the period.

Another small-bore cannon of the 14th century was the culverin, whose name derives from the snake-like handles attached to it. It was transitional between the handgun and the full cannon, and was used as an anti-personnel weapon. The culverin was forged of iron and fixed to a wooden stock, and usually placed on a rest for firing. Some of the loopholes in the gatehouse at Bodiam Castle appear to have been intended for culverin use.

The culverin was also common in 15th century battles, particularly among Burgundian armies. As the smallest of medieval gunpowder weapons, it was relatively light and portable. It fired lead shot, which was inexpensive relative to other available materials. There was also the demi-culverin, which was smaller and had a bore of 4 inches (10 cm).

Considerable developments in the 15th century produced very effective "bombards" — an early form of battering cannon used against walls and towers. These were used both defensively and offensively. Bamburgh Castle, previously thought impregnable, was taken by bombards in 1464. The keep in Wark, Northumberland was described in 1517 as having five storeys "in each of which there were five great murder-holes, shot with great vaults of stone, except one stage which is of timber, so that great bombards can be shot from each of them." An example of a bombard was found in the moat of Bodiam Castle, and a replica is now kept inside.

Artillery crews were generally recruited from the city craftsmen. The master gunner was usually the same person as the caster. In larger contingents, the master gunners had responsibility for the heavier artillery pieces, and were accompanied by their journeymen as well as smiths, carpenters, rope makers and carters. Smaller field pieces would be manned by trained volunteers. At the Battle of Flodden Field, each cannon had its crew of gunner, matrosses and drivers, and a group of "pioneers" were assigned to level to path ahead. Even with a level path, the gunpowder mixture used was unstable and could easily separate out into sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal during transport.

Once on site, they would be fired at ground level behind a hinged timber shutter, to provide some protection to the artillery crew. Timber wedges were used to control the barrel's elevation. The majority of medieval cannon were breechloaders, although there was still no effort to standardise calibres. The usual loading equipment consisted of a copper loading scoop, a ramrod, and a felt brush or "sponge". A bucket of water was always kept beside the cannon. Skins or cloths soaked in cold water could be used to cool down the barrel, while acids could also be added to the water to clean out the inside of the barrel. Hot coals were used to heat the shot or keep the wire primer going.

Some Scottish kings were very interested in the development of cannon, including the unfortunate James II, who was killed by the accidental explosion of one of his own cannon besieging Roxburgh Castle in 1460. Mons Meg, which dates from about the same time, is perhaps the most famous example of a Scottish cannon. James IV was Scotland's first Renaissance figure, who also had a fascination with cannon, both at land and at sea. By 1502, he was able to invest in a Scottish navy, which was to have a large number of cannon — his flagship, the Great Michael, was launched in 1511, with 36 great guns, 300 lesser pieces and 120 gunners.