Archaeoparasitology - Sources of Material

Sources of Material

In archaeological contexts, endoparasites (or their eggs or cysts) are usually found in (i) fossilized human or animal dung (coprolites), (ii) the tissues and digestive contents of mummified corpses, or (iii) soil samples from latrines, cesspits, or middens (dumps for domestic waste). A cyst of Echinococcus granulosus was even retrieved from cemetery soil in Poland. Ectoparasites may be found on the skin or scalp, as well as wigs, clothing, or personal grooming accessories found in archaeological sites. Ectoparasite eggs may be found attached to individual hairs. The International Ancient Egyptian Mummy Tissue Bank in Manchester, England, provides tissue samples for a variety of uses, including parasitological studies.

Since 1910, parasite remains have been found in archaeological samples from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and New Zealand. The age of archaeological sites yielding human parasite remains ranges from approx. 25,000-30,000 years ago to late 19th-early 20th century. Parasite remains have also been found in domestic animal remains at archaeological sites.

Human skeletal remains may exhibit indirect evidence of parasitism. For example, hookworm (Ancyslostoma duodenale) parasitism may lead to anemia, and anemia is one factor associated with the skeletal changes of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis. Thus, hookworm parasitism may be a causal factor in observed cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis, though dietary factors may also lead to anemia.

Information on the presence of intermediate hosts, required for life cycle completion by many parasites, is also useful in determining the likelihood that a parasite may have infected a particular ancient society. One example is the identification of molluscan intermediate hosts of schistosomiasis in an Islamic archaeological context.

Artifacts depicting the appearance of individuals may also indicate cases of parasitism. Examples include the characteristic facial deformities of leishmaniasis found on pre-Columbian Mochica pottery, and morphological features of certain ancient Egyptian figurative art. Literary sources also provide valuable information regarding not only the parasites present in historic societies, but also the knowledge and attitudes that the people had towards their parasitic infestations. However, specific parasitological diagnoses reported in ancient and medieval texts must always be read with some degree of skepticism.